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Saliva alcohol testing is a quick and non-invasive method that detects the presence of alcohol in the body through a saliva sample. This type of testing is commonly used in environments such as workplace screening, law enforcement, and personal sobriety monitoring. It measures the approximate blood alcohol concentration (BAC), providing immediate insights into an individual’s recent alcohol consumption and current level of intoxication.

Amphetamine is a central nervous system stimulant that influences brain activity by increasing levels of neurotransmitters such as dopamine and noradrenaline. It is commonly prescribed to treat conditions like Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and narcolepsy, helping to enhance focus, attention, and alertness. Although it is also found in some weight loss medications, amphetamine carries a risk of misuse and dependence.

Bacteria in water are microscopic organisms that can be either harmless or disease-causing. While some bacteria support ecological balance, others can pose health risks. Pathogenic bacteria often enter water sources through sewage, animal waste, or natural environments, making proper water management essential to prevent illness.

Benzodiazepines are a class of psychoactive medications that work by enhancing the neurotransmitter GABA in the brain, producing a calming effect. They are commonly prescribed to treat anxiety, insomnia, seizures, and muscle spasms. Well-known benzodiazepines include Valium (diazepam), Xanax (alprazolam), and Ativan (lorazepam). Although effective, they carry risks of dependence and withdrawal, especially with long-term use.

Blood group A has A antigens on the surface of red blood cells and anti-B antibodies in the plasma. Individuals with this blood group can donate blood to people with blood group A or AB. They can receive blood from group A or O donors. Group A is one of the most common blood types worldwide. Proper matching is essential to avoid transfusion reactions.

Blood group AB has both A and B antigens on red blood cells and no anti-A or anti-B antibodies in the plasma. It is known as the universal recipient for red blood cell transfusions because individuals with this group can receive blood from all other groups. However, they can only donate blood to others with blood group AB. AB is the rarest of the four main blood groups. It is important to consider both ABO and Rh compatibility in transfusions.

Blood group B has B antigens on red blood cells and anti-A antibodies in the plasma. People with this blood type can donate blood to those with blood group B or AB. They can receive blood from donors with blood group B or O. Blood group B is less common in some regions. Compatibility is essential for safe transfusions.

Blood group O has no A or B antigens on red blood cells but contains both anti-A and anti-B antibodies in the plasma. Individuals with this blood group can donate red blood cells to anyone (universal donor) but can only receive blood from group O. Blood group O is the most common blood type in many populations. Due to the absence of A and B antigens, it is essential for emergency transfusions.

Buprenorphine is a medication used primarily in the treatment of opioid addiction and, to a lesser extent, chronic pain management. It functions as a partial opioid agonist, producing effects similar to opioids but with a lower risk of dependence and abuse compared to full opioid agonists such as morphine or heroin. Buprenorphine is commonly utilised in medication-assisted therapy (MAT) to help reduce withdrawal symptoms and cravings.

Chloride is an anion (negatively charged ion) made up of chlorine atoms and is a naturally occurring component of many water sources. It originates from the dissolution of chloride-containing salts, such as sodium chloride and calcium chloride, in the Earth’s crust. Chloride is commonly found in both fresh and saltwater, and its concentration can vary depending on geological and environmental factors.

Cocaine is a powerful illegal stimulant derived from the coca plant. It is commonly snorted, inhaled, or injected, producing short-lived intense euphoria, increased energy, and heightened alertness. Cocaine use carries serious health risks including heart attacks, strokes, and addiction. It is known for its high potential for abuse and is classified as a Class A drug in the United Kingdom.

Copper in water refers to the presence of the metallic element copper (Cu) dissolved or suspended in water. Copper can enter water sources naturally through geological processes or from human activities such as corrosion of copper pipes, industrial discharges, and mining operations. Monitoring copper levels is important for assessing water quality and potential impacts on human health.

Fentanyl is a synthetic opioid that is significantly more potent than morphine. It is mainly used for managing severe or chronic pain and is available in forms such as patches, lozenges, and injections. Due to its high potency, fentanyl poses a strong risk of addiction and overdose, even at low doses. It is also illegally produced and sometimes mixed with other drugs, which increases the risk of accidental overdoses.

Free chlorine is a measure of the chlorine available in water for disinfection. It is a strong oxidising agent that exists primarily as hypochlorous acid (HOCl) or hypochlorite ion (OCl⁻), depending on the water’s pH. Free chlorine plays a key role in killing harmful bacteria and viruses, helping to ensure water safety, but must be carefully controlled due to its high reactivity.

Gamma-Hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) is a naturally occurring compound and central nervous system depressant. Although it is found in small amounts within the human body, it is better known for its illicit use due to its sedative and euphoric effects. At higher doses, GHB can cause drowsiness, dizziness, nausea, unconsciousness, memory loss, and potentially life-threatening effects. Its narrow safety margin makes the risk of overdose high. GHB is sometimes used as a “date rape drug” because it can be mixed into drinks without any noticeable taste, smell, or colour.

Black tea intolerance is a condition characterised by difficulty digesting black tea, which is made from the leaves of the Camellia sinensis plant. Unlike a black tea allergy, which triggers an immune response, intolerance typically leads to gastrointestinal symptoms such as bloating, cramps, or nausea after consumption.

Influenza A is a major type of virus responsible for seasonal flu, a contagious respiratory illness. Testing for Influenza A is important for accurate diagnosis, helping differentiate it from other respiratory infections with similar symptoms. This distinction supports timely treatment decisions and guides preventive measures to reduce transmission.

Influenza B is a strain of the influenza virus that contributes to seasonal flu outbreaks, primarily affecting humans. Although generally less common than Influenza A, it can still cause significant illness, particularly in children and young adults. Testing for Influenza B is crucial for accurate diagnosis, timely treatment, and effective prevention during the flu season.

Ketamine is a substance originally developed as an anaesthetic, now used both in medical treatments and recreationally. Medically, it’s valued for its sedative and pain-relieving effects, especially in emergency care. Recreationally, it’s known for its hallucinogenic and dissociative experiences. However, misuse of ketamine can cause serious cognitive and psychological issues and carries a risk of dependence.

Marijuana is a substance derived from the Cannabis sativa plant and contains THC (tetrahydrocannabinol), a compound known for its psychoactive effects. It is used recreationally for its relaxing and euphoric effects, and medicinally for managing pain, nausea, and symptoms of chronic conditions. Its legal status varies across regions, with increasing acceptance for medical use.

Methadone is a long-acting synthetic opioid used to manage chronic pain and treat opioid dependence. It works by altering how the brain and nervous system respond to pain, while also helping to reduce withdrawal symptoms in individuals with opioid addiction. Although effective as a treatment, methadone carries risks of dependence and overdose if not used carefully.

Methamphetamine (meth) is a potent and illegal stimulant that affects the central nervous system. Chemically similar to amphetamine, meth produces stronger effects on the brain, resulting in increased activity, reduced appetite, and intense euphoria. It has a high potential for abuse and can lead to severe physical and psychological dependence.

The Monkeypox virus A29L antigen is a surface protein associated with the monkeypox virus (Mpox), a zoonotic virus that can be transmitted from animals to humans and between individuals. Detection of the A29L antigen in a sample indicates an active infection, as antigens are typically present during the early symptomatic phase of the illness.

Nitrates (NO₃⁻) and nitrites (NO₂⁻) are nitrogen-oxygen compounds commonly found in water, either from natural sources or as a result of agricultural runoff and industrial activity. Both serve as indicators of water quality and, at elevated levels, can pose health risks, particularly in vulnerable populations.

Opiates are a class of narcotics derived from the opium poppy, including natural compounds such as morphine and codeine. They are primarily used for pain relief but are also known for their high potential for dependence and abuse. Opiates work by binding to specific receptors in the brain, altering the perception of pain and often producing feelings of euphoria.

Oxycodone is a strong opioid medication used to alleviate moderate to severe pain. It works by attaching to opioid receptors in the brain and spinal cord, lessening the sensation of pain and its emotional effects. Although effective for pain relief, oxycodone carries a considerable risk of dependence, addiction, and misuse.

The pH level in water is a measure that indicates its acidity or alkalinity on a scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 denotes neutral water, values below 7 signify acidity, and values above 7 indicate alkalinity. The pH level plays a crucial role in determining the chemical behaviour of water and its interaction with pipes and other materials.

Sulfate in water refers to the concentration of sulphate ions (SO₄²⁻) dissolved in water. Sulphate is a naturally occurring anion present in many water sources and can also originate from industrial processes, mining, and agricultural runoff. It is an important water quality parameter, influencing both water characteristics and potential environmental effects.

Total chlorine in water is a measure that reflects the combined concentration of free chlorine and chlorine that has reacted with other substances, such as organic matter, ammonia or other contaminants. It indicates the total chlorine available for disinfection and is important for assessing the effectiveness of chlorine in eliminating harmful microorganisms during water treatment.

Tramadol is a prescription opioid analgesic used to treat moderate to severe pain. It works by binding to opioid receptors in the brain and affecting neurotransmitters such as serotonin and noradrenaline, altering the perception of pain.

Water metals are metallic elements found in water, either dissolved or as suspended particles. Common examples include iron, copper, lead, arsenic, and mercury. They may originate from natural sources such as soil and rock formations, or from human activities like industrial discharge, plumbing corrosion, and agricultural runoff.