Health Markers

3-Hydroxykynurenine (3-OH-kynurenine) is a metabolite in the kynurenine pathway, which reflects the breakdown of the amino acid tryptophan. It serves as an intermediate compound during the conversion of tryptophan into important molecules, including the essential coenzyme NAD+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide).

5-Hydroxyindoleacetate (5-HIAA) is a measurement that reflects the breakdown of serotonin, a key neurotransmitter in the body. It is primarily used as a clinical marker, especially for detecting and monitoring carcinoid tumours that may overproduce serotonin. Urinary 5-HIAA levels can also serve as an approximate indicator of the body’s overall serotonin levels.

Anti-Thyroglobulin (A-TG) antibodies are immune system proteins that target thyroglobulin, an essential protein in the thyroid gland involved in the production of thyroid hormones. Elevated A-TG levels often indicate autoimmune thyroid disorders such as Hashimoto’s thyroiditis or Graves’ disease. These conditions can affect thyroid function and overall health, making A-TG monitoring important for diagnosis and management.

Anti-Thyroid Peroxidase (A-TPO) antibodies are immune proteins that mistakenly target thyroid peroxidase, an enzyme essential for producing thyroid hormones. Elevated levels of A-TPO antibodies are often linked to autoimmune thyroid disorders such as Hashimoto’s thyroiditis and Graves’ disease, which can result in either an underactive or overactive thyroid function and impact overall health.

Adipate, also known as adipic acid, is a compound involved in lipid metabolism and serves as a biomarker for metabolic dysfunctions, particularly those related to fatty acid oxidation. Its presence, often detected in urine or blood tests, can assist in diagnosing and monitoring metabolic conditions.

Albumin is the most abundant protein in human blood plasma and plays a key role in maintaining oncotic pressure, helping to keep fluid within blood vessels. It also binds to and transports various substances in the blood, such as hormones, vitamins, and medications. Produced by the liver, albumin levels in the blood serve as important indicators of liver function and nutritional status.

Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) is an enzyme found in various tissues throughout the body, particularly in the liver, bones, kidneys, and digestive system. ALP plays a crucial role in breaking down proteins and in dephosphorylation processes. In the liver, it is associated with the bile ducts and is frequently used to assist in diagnosing liver and bone conditions. Raised ALP levels may indicate bile duct obstruction or bone disorders, while low levels can be associated with certain genetic conditions and malnutrition.

Alpha-ketoglutarate (AKG) is a key compound in the Krebs cycle, an essential metabolic pathway for energy production in cells. It plays a crucial role in converting nutrients into energy, amino acid metabolism, and nitrogen transport. Additionally, Alpha-ketoglutarate is involved in various cellular processes, including signaling and regulation....

ALT (Alanine Aminotransferase): ALT is an enzyme predominantly found in the liver, where it assists in protein metabolism. When liver cells are damaged or inflamed, ALT is released into the bloodstream, causing its levels to rise. Measuring ALT is a common method to assess liver health, as elevated levels may indicate liver injury or disease, while normal levels generally signify normal liver function.

Alanine aminotransferase (ALT) is an enzyme found predominantly in the liver that plays a crucial role in protein metabolism and other vital metabolic processes. Elevated ALT levels in the blood may indicate liver cell damage or inflammation, making it a significant marker for evaluating liver health.

Amylase is an enzyme involved in digestion, produced by the pancreas and salivary glands. Its primary function is to break down complex carbohydrates — such as starches and glycogen — into simpler sugars like maltose and glucose, which the body can easily absorb.

Beta-hydroxybutyrate (BHB) is a ketone body that indicates the body’s transition to using fat as its main energy source. Produced by the liver from fatty acids during fasting, carbohydrate restriction, or intense exercise, BHB supplies an alternative energy source — especially for the brain — when glucose availability is low. It is a key indicator of ketosis, a metabolic state linked to fat metabolism.

Betaine is a compound found in foods such as beetroot and spinach. It plays key roles in the body by acting as a methyl donor in methylation processes, helping regulate cellular fluid balance, supporting liver health by preventing fat accumulation, and lowering homocysteine levels, which contributes to cardiovascular health.

Bilirubin is a yellow compound that results from the breakdown of red blood cells in the body. It is transported to the liver, where it is processed and excreted into the bile. Healthy liver function ensures bilirubin is efficiently filtered from the blood and converted into a form that can be eliminated via the digestive system. Blood bilirubin levels are an important indicator of liver health, bile duct function, and red blood cell turnover.

Haematuria, or blood in the urine, is a finding that indicates the presence of red blood cells in the urine. It may be visible, giving the urine a pink, red, or cola-like colour, or microscopic, detectable only through laboratory testing. This condition can arise from a wide range of causes, from minor issues to serious underlying diseases.

Carnitine is a naturally occurring compound that plays a vital role in energy metabolism. It transports long-chain fatty acids into the mitochondria, where they are broken down to produce energy, and helps remove metabolic waste from cells. While the body can synthesise carnitine in the liver and kidneys, it is also obtained from dietary sources, primarily animal-based foods.

The cholesterol-to-HDL (Chol:HDL) ratio is a measure that reflects the balance between total cholesterol and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol in the blood. This ratio is used to assess the risk of heart disease, with a lower ratio indicating a healthier balance and a reduced risk. It is often considered a more accurate indicator of cardiovascular health than total cholesterol levels alone.

Choline is an essential nutrient that plays a key role in many vital bodily functions. It helps maintain the structure of cell membranes, supports the production of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine for muscle control, memory, and mood, and aids in fat metabolism and liver health. Choline is also important for brain development, neural tube formation during pregnancy, DNA synthesis, and healthy nervous system function.

Cis-aconitate is an intermediate in the Krebs cycle, a central metabolic pathway involved in cellular energy production. It is formed during the conversion of citrate to isocitrate, a reaction catalysed by the enzyme aconitase. The Krebs cycle plays a vital role in oxidising nutrients to produce ATP, the main energy source for cells, and also supplies key building blocks for the synthesis of amino acids, nucleotides, and fatty acids.

Citramalate, also referred to as citramalic acid, is a compound that can be measured as a urinary biomarker to evaluate metabolic health. It is produced as a metabolic by-product and may indicate a bacterial imbalance or overgrowth in the gut. Elevated levels can also suggest potential disruptions in normal metabolic functions.

Citrate is a compound that plays a key role in the citric acid cycle, essential for energy production in aerobic organisms. It helps break down carbohydrates, fats, and proteins to produce ATP (energy). Citrate also supports the regulation of the body’s acid-base balance and contributes to kidney stone prevention by binding with calcium.

Creatine Kinase (CK) is an enzyme found in the heart, brain, skeletal muscles, and other tissues. Raised CK levels in the blood indicate muscle damage, as the enzyme is released when muscle cells are harmed. There are different types of CK, including CK-MM found in skeletal muscle, CK-MB mainly in the heart, and CK-BB typically in the brain. Measuring CK levels is useful for diagnosing and monitoring muscle damage, such as that caused by a heart attack (myocardial infarction).

Creatinine is a compound produced through muscle metabolism and is an important indicator of kidney function. It is derived from creatine, a molecule vital for energy production in muscles, and is filtered from the blood by the kidneys before being excreted in the urine.

Cystathionine is a non-protein amino acid that acts as an important intermediate in the metabolism of the essential amino acids methionine and cysteine. It plays a crucial role in the transsulfuration pathway, where homocysteine is converted into cystathionine by the enzyme cystathionine β-synthase (CBS), and cystathionine is subsequently broken down into cysteine by the enzyme cystathionine γ-lyase (CSE).

Anti-Thyroid Peroxidase (A-TPO) antibodies are proteins produced by the immune system that target thyroid peroxidase, an enzyme essential for thyroid hormone production. Elevated levels of A-TPO antibodies may indicate autoimmune thyroid disorders, such as Hashimoto’s thyroiditis or Graves’ disease, which can disrupt thyroid function and affect overall health.

EBNA IgG is a marker that reflects the presence of antibodies against the EBV (Epstein-Barr virus) nuclear antigen (EBNA), a protein produced during the later stages of infection. The presence of EBNA IgG antibodies generally indicates a past infection, as these antibodies develop several weeks to months after the initial infection and typically remain detectable for life. Testing for EBNA IgG is often used alongside VCA antibodies to differentiate between a current and past infection and to assess the stage of the infection.

EBV VCA is a protein component of the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) that appears early during infection. Testing for VCA is an important marker for diagnosing both acute and chronic EBV infections.

eGFR (Estimated Glomerular Filtration Rate) is a measure that estimates how well the kidneys filter waste from the blood. It is calculated using serum creatinine levels along with factors such as age, body size and sex. eGFR is a key indicator of kidney function, helping to determine how effectively the kidneys are working. A lower eGFR suggests reduced kidney function, which may indicate kidney disease or damage.

Ethyl malonate (EM) is a compound that acts as a biomarker for certain metabolic disorders. Elevated levels of ethyl malonate in the body may indicate inherited metabolic conditions, such as ethylmalonic encephalopathy, or disruptions in fatty acid oxidation.

Gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT) is an enzyme present throughout the body, with the highest concentrations in the liver. GGT plays a crucial role in glutathione metabolism, which is essential for antioxidant defence. It facilitates the transfer of amino acids and peptides across cell membranes. Raised GGT levels are commonly used as a marker to detect liver damage, particularly bile duct obstruction and liver conditions associated with alcohol consumption.

Globulin is a group of blood proteins that play important roles in the body, including transporting hormones, lipids, vitamins, and minerals. They are also key components of the immune system, with some globulins functioning as antibodies that help defend against infections. Produced by the liver and immune system, globulin levels can provide insight into immune health, liver function, and nutritional status.

Glucose is a simple sugar and the primary source of energy for the body’s cells. It plays a vital role in metabolism, supporting brain function, muscle activity, and overall energy production. Blood glucose levels are carefully regulated by hormones such as insulin and glucagon. Imbalances in glucose levels can lead to conditions like diabetes, hypoglycaemia, and hyperglycaemia, impacting overall health and requiring proper management.

GOT, or Gamma-Glutamyl Transferase (GGT), is an enzyme present in various tissues throughout the body, with the highest concentrations found in the liver. It plays a crucial role in glutathione metabolism, a vital antioxidant, and is involved in the transport of amino acids across cell membranes. GOT is commonly measured in blood tests and acts as an important indicator of liver and biliary tract function.

HbA1c (Glycated Haemoglobin) is a biomarker that reflects the average blood glucose levels over the past two to three months. It forms when glucose binds to haemoglobin in red blood cells and serves as a key indicator for long-term blood sugar control. Elevated HbA1c levels suggest poor glucose regulation and are commonly used to diagnose and manage diabetes.

HDL (High-Density Lipoprotein) is a type of cholesterol commonly known as “good” cholesterol. It helps protect heart health by transporting excess cholesterol from the bloodstream to the liver, where it can be eliminated from the body. Higher HDL levels are linked to a reduced risk of heart disease and stroke.

Homocysteine is a sulphur-containing amino acid produced during the metabolism of methionine, an essential amino acid. It plays a key role in methylation, detoxification, and cardiovascular function. Elevated homocysteine levels have been associated with increased risk of heart disease, stroke, cognitive decline, and pregnancy complications. Imbalances may be caused by deficiencies in B vitamins (especially B6, B12, and folate), impaired methylation, or genetic variants like MTHFR. Monitoring homocysteine levels can provide valuable insights into cardiovascular, neurological, and metabolic health.

Homovanillic acid (HVA) is a metabolite that reflects the breakdown of dopamine, a key neurotransmitter in the body. HVA levels serve as an important marker for assessing dopamine activity. Variations in HVA can indicate changes in dopamine function and are used to monitor the effectiveness of treatments targeting dopamine metabolism.

High-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP) is a blood test that measures low levels of C-reactive protein (CRP), a key marker of inflammation in the body. Unlike standard CRP tests, hs-CRP can detect subtle inflammation, making it particularly useful for assessing the risk of cardiovascular diseases such as heart attacks and strokes. Raised hs-CRP levels may indicate a higher risk of heart disease, even when other risk factors are absent.

Hydroxymethylglutarate (HMG), particularly as β-hydroxy β-methylglutaryl-CoA (HMG-CoA), is a compound that fulfils two crucial functions in the body. It is a key intermediate in cholesterol synthesis, essential for producing cell membranes, steroid hormones, and bile acids. Furthermore, in the liver, HMG-CoA aids in the production of ketone bodies, which act as an alternative energy source during fasting, low-carbohydrate diets, or vigorous exercise when glucose levels are diminished.

IDO (Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase) is an enzyme involved in metabolising the amino acid tryptophan via the kynurenine pathway. By depleting tryptophan, it can modulate immune responses, a mechanism that some tumours may use to evade immune detection. IDO is also implicated in psychiatric and neurodegenerative disorders and is influenced by inflammation and stress.

IgG (Immunoglobulin G) is a type of antibody that indicates the body’s long-term immune response. It is the most abundant antibody in the blood and plays a crucial role in protecting against infections. In the context of Lyme disease, caused by the bacterium Borrelia burgdorferi, IgG antibodies are measured to assess past exposure or later stages of infection. Unlike IgM antibodies, which appear early on, IgG antibodies develop more slowly and can remain in the body for prolonged periods, providing lasting immunity.

IgM (Immunoglobulin M) is a type of antibody that acts as the body’s initial defence against infections. It plays a crucial role in the immune system’s early response by rapidly recognising and targeting invading pathogens. In diagnostic testing, IgM levels are measured to identify recent infections, such as Lyme disease caused by Borrelia burgdorferi. The presence of IgM antibodies in the blood usually indicates recent exposure or an active infection, providing valuable information about the early phases of the immune response.

Isocitrate is a key intermediate in the Krebs cycle, an essential metabolic pathway for cellular energy production. It is formed from citrate and then converted into α-ketoglutarate, a step that helps generate NADH used for ATP synthesis. Isocitrate also links multiple metabolic processes, including the production of amino acids, nucleotides, and fatty acids.

Ketones are substances produced when the body breaks down fats for energy, especially during low carbohydrate intake such as fasting or following a ketogenic diet. This process, called ketosis, primarily occurs in the liver and produces key ketones like beta-hydroxybutyrate, acetoacetate, and acetone. Ketones act as an alternative energy source, particularly for the brain, but elevated levels can indicate serious conditions such as diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) in people with diabetes.

KMO (Kynurenine 3-monooxygenase) is an enzyme that plays a key role in the kynurenine pathway, responsible for metabolising the amino acid tryptophan. It helps regulate the balance of metabolites within this pathway, influencing processes that can affect brain health. KMO activity has been linked to neurological conditions such as Alzheimer’s disease, Huntington’s disease, and schizophrenia.

Kynurenic acid is a metabolite produced in the kynurenine pathway during the breakdown of the amino acid tryptophan. It acts in the nervous system as a neuroprotective agent and is of interest in neurological and psychiatric research. Imbalances in kynurenic acid levels have been linked to conditions such as schizophrenia and depression.

Kynurenine is a key metabolite in the breakdown of the essential amino acid tryptophan. It serves as a precursor to several important compounds, including the neuroprotective kynurenic acid and the neurotoxic quinolinic acid, and plays a crucial role in a variety of physiological and pathological processes in the body.

Lactate, also known as lactic acid, is a byproduct of anaerobic metabolism — the process of breaking down glucose for energy without adequate oxygen, often during intense exercise. It is associated with muscle fatigue and the familiar “burn” sensation experienced during strenuous activity. Lactate also plays a role in the Cori cycle, where it is converted back into glucose in the liver.

LDL (Low-Density Lipoprotein) is a type of cholesterol often called “bad” cholesterol. It transports cholesterol particles through the bloodstream, and elevated levels can contribute to plaque buildup in the arteries. This accumulation, known as atherosclerosis, can narrow and harden the arteries, increasing the risk of heart disease and stroke.

The measurement of histamine in stool is a diagnostic test used to evaluate gastrointestinal conditions. Histamine is a compound involved in immune responses and inflammation. Elevated levels of histamine in stool may indicate allergic reactions, infections, or disorders affecting the gut’s immune system. Monitoring histamine in stool can help assess digestive health and inform treatment strategies.

Urinary leukocytes are white blood cells present in urine. They are usually absent or found in very small quantities, and elevated levels often indicate infection or inflammation in the urinary tract or kidneys. Their detection is a key marker for diagnosing urinary tract infections (UTIs) and other kidney-related disorders.

Malate, or malic acid, is a key compound involved in cellular metabolism, particularly within the Krebs cycle in the mitochondria. It plays a crucial role in energy production by being converted into oxaloacetate, a process that generates NADH, which is then utilised to produce ATP, the cell's primary energy currency.

Methylmalonic acid (MMA) is a substance produced in the body during the metabolism of certain fats and proteins. It is a by-product of methionine breakdown and is influenced by vitamin B12 levels. Elevated MMA levels can serve as an indicator of vitamin B12 deficiency.

Neopterin is a molecule produced by immune cells, particularly macrophages, in response to stimulation by interferon-gamma. It is regarded as a marker of immune system activation and inflammation. Elevated levels of neopterin in urine or blood can indicate increased immune activity, commonly observed in infections, autoimmune disorders, or chronic inflammatory conditions. As it reflects the cellular immune response, neopterin is sometimes used to monitor disease progression or the status of the immune system.

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) is an essential coenzyme found in all living cells. It plays a crucial role in cellular metabolism, particularly in redox reactions, by cycling between its oxidised form (NAD⁺) and reduced form (NADH). Beyond energy production, NAD⁺ is vital for cell signalling, DNA repair, and regulating gene expression, making it indispensable for maintaining cellular health and function.

Urinary nitrates are chemical compounds usually absent or present only in small quantities in urine. Their presence can indicate a bacterial infection, such as a urinary tract infection (UTI), as certain bacteria can convert urinary nitrite into nitrate. Nitrate testing is a common diagnostic method for detecting UTIs.

Non-HDL cholesterol is a measure of all the harmful types of cholesterol, including LDL (low-density lipoprotein), VLDL (very low-density lipoprotein), and other lipid particles that contribute to plaque buildup in your arteries. It is calculated by subtracting your HDL (high-density lipoprotein) or "good" cholesterol level from your total cholesterol number. Non-HDL cholesterol is considered a more comprehensive indicator of heart disease risk than LDL cholesterol alone, as it includes all the atherogenic particles.

Urinary protein, also known as proteinuria, refers to the presence of an abnormal amount of protein in the urine. Proteins, such as albumin, are vital components of blood, but they are not normally found in urine in significant amounts. The presence of protein in urine can indicate kidney damage or disease, as healthy kidneys typically prevent significant protein loss through urine.

PSA (Prostate-Specific Antigen) is a protein produced by the prostate gland and commonly measured in the blood as a marker of prostate health. Elevated PSA levels may indicate prostate cancer but can also result from non-cancerous conditions such as benign prostatic hyperplasia or prostatitis.

PSA, or Prostate-Specific Antigen, is a protein produced by the prostate gland. Measuring PSA levels in the blood helps screen for prostate health, as elevated levels may indicate prostate cancer. However, higher PSA can also result from non-cancerous conditions such as benign prostatic hyperplasia or prostatitis.

The PSA ratio, or free-to-total PSA ratio, is a measure that indicates the proportion of free prostate-specific antigen (PSA) to total PSA in the blood. It is calculated by dividing the free PSA (unbound to proteins) by the total PSA (free plus protein-bound), then multiplying by 100 to express it as a percentage. This ratio helps differentiate between benign prostate conditions and prostate cancer, particularly in men with moderately raised total PSA levels.

Pyruvate is a key compound in cellular metabolism formed as the end product of glycolysis when glucose is broken down. It plays a central role in energy production by entering the citric acid cycle under oxygen-rich conditions. When oxygen is scarce, such as during intense exercise, pyruvate is converted into lactate to support continued ATP (energy) production. Additionally, pyruvate is involved in gluconeogenesis and serves as a precursor for amino acid synthesis.

Quinolinic acid is a metabolite in the kynurenine pathway, which is involved in the metabolism of the amino acid tryptophan. It plays a key role as an excitotoxin in the central nervous system. Elevated levels of quinolinic acid have been linked to neurological conditions such as Alzheimer’s disease, Huntington’s disease, epilepsy, and certain psychiatric disorders including depression.

S-Adenosylmethionine (SAMe) is a naturally occurring compound found in all cells, produced from methionine and ATP. It plays a crucial role in methylation processes, neurotransmitter synthesis affecting mood, joint health, and liver function. SAMe is commonly used as a supplement to support conditions such as depression, osteoarthritis, and liver disorders.

The SAMe/SAH ratio is a measure that reflects the balance between two important compounds in the body — S-Adenosylmethionine (SAMe) and S-Adenosylhomocysteine (SAH). SAMe acts as a key methyl donor in many biochemical processes, while SAH is produced after SAMe donates a methyl group. A higher SAMe/SAH ratio indicates a strong methylation capacity, which supports healthy cellular function and overall well-being.

Suberic acid, also known as octanedioic acid, is a dicarboxylic acid that functions as a metabolic marker in the body. In biological and physiological contexts, it is primarily linked to fatty acid metabolism. Elevated levels of suberic acid may indicate metabolic disorders, particularly those involving fatty acid oxidation, such as medium-chain acyl-coenzyme A dehydrogenase (MCAD) deficiency.

Succinate is a key metabolic intermediate that plays an essential role in the Krebs cycle, the process by which cells produce energy. It helps convert nutrients into ATP, the primary energy source for cellular functions. Beyond energy production, succinate also participates in amino acid and fatty acid synthesis and acts as a signalling molecule that influences inflammation and the body’s response to low oxygen levels.

Cholesterol is a waxy, fat-like substance found in all cells of the body and is essential for producing hormones, vitamin D, and digestive substances. While the body produces all the cholesterol it needs, it is also present in animal-based foods such as meat and dairy. There are two main types: low-density lipoprotein (LDL), or “bad” cholesterol, which can contribute to plaque buildup in arteries, and high-density lipoprotein (HDL), or “good” cholesterol, which helps remove excess cholesterol from the bloodstream.

Total Iron Binding Capacity (TIBC) is a blood test that indicates the blood’s ability to bind and transport iron via transferrin — the primary iron-carrying protein. It offers an indirect measure of available transferrin and is frequently used alongside other iron tests to help evaluate iron deficiency, anaemia, or iron overload conditions.

Total protein is a measurement that reflects the combined levels of two major blood proteins — albumin and globulin. Albumin, the most abundant protein in blood plasma, helps maintain oncotic pressure and transports various substances, while globulins play key roles in immune response, blood clotting, and other functions. Total protein levels provide important insights into nutritional status as well as liver and kidney health.

Transferrin saturation is a measure that reflects the percentage of transferrin — a blood protein that transports iron — that is actually bound to iron. It helps assess how effectively iron is being carried and utilised in the body. This marker is useful for identifying iron deficiency or iron overload, and is typically calculated using serum iron and total iron-binding capacity (TIBC). Low levels may suggest iron deficiency, while high levels can indicate conditions such as haemochromatosis.

Transglutaminase IgG (tTG-IgG) is a blood test that detects IgG antibodies against tissue transglutaminase, an enzyme found in the lining of the intestines. It is primarily used to assist in diagnosing coeliac disease, particularly in individuals with IgA deficiency or inconclusive tTG-IgA results, by indicating an immune response to gluten.

Triglycerides are a type of fat (lipid) found in the bloodstream and act as a primary form of energy storage. Excess calories from food are converted into triglycerides and stored in fat cells, which are then released by hormones to provide energy between meals. Elevated triglyceride levels, particularly when combined with high LDL or low HDL cholesterol, are associated with an increased risk of atherosclerosis, heart attack, and stroke.

Trimethylamine (TMA) is a volatile organic compound produced in the gut through bacterial fermentation of dietary nutrients such as choline, L-carnitine, and lecithin. Typically, TMA is rapidly converted in the liver to trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO), which is less toxic. However, elevated TMA levels can indicate imbalances in the gut microbiome or impaired liver detoxification capacity. High TMA is also linked to trimethylaminuria, a rare metabolic disorder that causes a strong body odour. Monitoring TMA provides insight into gut microbial activity, protein metabolism, and liver function.

Trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO) is a compound produced in the liver from trimethylamine (TMA), which is generated by gut bacteria during the digestion of nutrients such as choline, L-carnitine, and phosphatidylcholine. Elevated levels of TMAO have been associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease, kidney dysfunction, and inflammation. TMAO serves as a valuable marker for assessing metabolic health and the influence of gut microbiota on systemic disease risk. Lifestyle and diet, particularly red meat and eggs, can significantly affect TMAO levels. Monitoring TMAO may help identify hidden risks even when other conventional markers appear normal.

Urea is a waste product produced in the liver through the breakdown of proteins. Once formed, it is transported to the kidneys and ultimately expelled in the urine. Measuring urea levels in the blood, commonly referred to as blood urea nitrogen (BUN), is a routine test used to assess kidney function. Raised blood urea levels may indicate impaired kidney function or other problems affecting waste processing and elimination.

Urine density, also known as urine specific gravity, is a measurement of the concentration of solutes in the urine. It indicates the kidney’s ability to concentrate or dilute urine and acts as a marker of hydration status and kidney function. Although normal values may vary, abnormalities can suggest dehydration, overhydration, or underlying kidney conditions.

Urobilinogen in urine is a by-product of red blood cell breakdown, formed in the intestines from bilirubin and excreted in the urine. It is normally present in low concentrations and acts as an indicator of liver function and health. Abnormally high or low levels may suggest liver disease or blood-related conditions.

Vanillylmandelic acid (VMA) is a metabolite produced from the breakdown of catecholamines such as adrenaline, noradrenaline, and dopamine. It is used as a clinical marker to evaluate catecholamine activity, with levels typically measured in urine. Various factors, including certain foods and medications, can affect VMA levels.

Xanthurenate is a metabolite produced during the breakdown of the amino acid tryptophan via the kynurenine pathway. Its levels can indicate vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) status, as this vitamin serves as an essential cofactor in the process. Elevated xanthurenate may suggest a deficiency in vitamin B6.